The figures in the Maddison and HYDE databases are usually in terms of the modern boundaries. There is some interesting in analysis to be done using those figures without reference to the historical boundaries. Peak Year GDP: 39.8% of the world GDP in 1100 CE (22.2% of population) Nadir: 3.7% of world GDP in 1961…

States emerged gradually from loose tribal entities. In most locations, this process is poorly documented as the invention of writing tends to occur at around the same time as states. In general, I am giving proto-states the benefit of the doubt, as I think it more useful to include something instead of “None”. For example,…

Sometimes the iconography of a state continues but the state itself does not actually control its territory or a significant part of its territory. This is often in the context of a civil war, but not always. Somalia, Congo and Haiti are current examples of failed states. Historically the Holy Roman Empire and the interregnum…

Civil wars are common throughout history. They may be efforts an area to secede from existing state (American Revolution, American Civil War), to take control of an existing state (English Civil War, Chinese Civil War) or both (Russian Civil War). Most geographical sources neglect these events. Geacron does not show the United State until 1784.…

During wars, enemy territory (or even liberated allied territory) is often occupied without annexation. This is usually a temporary measure. I consider that occupied territory belongs to the occupier until withdrawal or local administration is restored. It is common for an independent country to have foreign troops as occupiers become allies. Today, the US maintains…

In a colony, the colonial power controls territory without integrating into hegemon’s nation. The colony may have its own administration and military, but they under the control of the colonial power. This can be significant. For example the Wikipedia shows for 1870 (using the work of Angus Maddison) 1870  China189,470  India134,882[q]  UK100,180[r]  U.S.98,374  Russian Empire83,646…

In some recent cases, the client state had the iconography an independent state, but the actual control lay with the hegemon. The Warsaw Pact duing the Cold War was an example of this, even though nominally independent, their rulers where chosen in Moscow and their military was subordinated to the Soviets. A similar system existed…

A very common arrangement in the past was to have a somewhat independent kingdom paying tribute to an empire. I judge these arrangements based upon the actual power relationships. For example, Wallachia paid tribute to the Ottoman Empire from 1420’s on, but there were frequent refusals of tribute and wars with the Ottomans until the…

Sometimes different polities exert control over the same territory, both viewing each other as legitimate. Federations are a common form of government today. The United States, Canada, Australia, Switzerland, India, Germany & the United Kingdom are all federations of a sort. (Notably, the Russian Federation is a unitary state, not a federation). In all these…

In a hegemonic relationship, two polities have an unequal relationship with each other. Should the client state be considered a part of the hegemonic state. There are number of tests I use to determine whether client state is considered indepedent or part of the hegemon. These tests are problematic in practice (you don’t know if…